Choline
What it does and why you need it
Choline is required for normal function of all cells. It is incorporated into the phospholipids of every cell membrane, makes up part of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and contributes to the methylation pathways that also involve folate and vitamin B12. The liver uses choline to package and export fat; long-running low choline intake can produce fatty liver in feeding studies.
The UK position on choline is unusual: SACN has not set a Reference Nutrient Intake, and NHS pages on vitamins and minerals do not include a recommended daily intake. EFSA in 2016 set an Adequate Intake of 400mg per day for adults across the EU, based on observed dietary intakes; this is the closest formal European figure but it is not a UK recommendation. For now, the honest position is that the UK has not set one.
Best food sources
Choline is concentrated in egg yolks and animal foods, with smaller amounts in many plant foods. Values per 100g come from USDA SR Legacy and McCance and Widdowson 7th edition; the site's food entries currently store macros only.
| Food | Typical UK portion | Choline per portion | % of EFSA AI (400mg) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chicken liver, cooked | 50g (a small portion) | around 145mg | 36% |
| Egg, whole (most of the choline is in the yolk) | One medium, around 50g | around 150mg | 38% |
| Beef, lean cut, cooked | 100g | around 80mg | 20% |
| Salmon, cooked | 100g | around 90mg | 23% |
| Chicken, cooked | 100g | around 80mg | 20% |
| Soybeans | 100g (cooked) | around 115mg | 29% |
| Milk | 200ml | around 32mg | 8% |
Practical: two eggs (around 300mg of choline) and any reasonable animal-protein meal across a day reach the EFSA orientation figure comfortably. Vegans need to lean on soya, wholegrains, pulses, and a wider range of food groups to reach similar intakes; supplementation is one option for people whose diets are low.
UK reference intake by age and sex
The UK has not set a Reference Nutrient Intake or other formal value for choline. SACN's 1991 Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients does not include choline. NHS Vitamins and minerals pages do not include a choline figure.
| Source | Value |
|---|---|
| UK SACN / NHS | No reference value set |
| EFSA Adequate Intake, adults (2016) | 400mg per day (Europe-wide; not a UK figure) |
| EFSA AI, pregnancy | 480mg per day |
| EFSA AI, breastfeeding | 520mg per day |
Deficiency signs and who is at risk
Choline deficiency from diet is rare in well-fed adults eating any animal foods or a varied plant-based diet that includes soya, pulses, and wholegrains.
Experimental deficiency in volunteers produces fatty liver and muscle damage. Some long-running absorption conditions or restricted diets could in theory produce sub-optimal intake without obvious symptoms.
Pregnancy: choline demand rises in pregnancy and breastfeeding to support the baby's brain development. EFSA's increased Adequate Intakes for pregnancy and breastfeeding reflect this. The UK does not give specific choline guidance for pregnancy, but eggs and other animal-source foods, or for vegans a deliberate focus on choline-containing plant foods, fit naturally into general pregnancy nutrition advice.
Too much: safe upper limit
EFSA has not set a tolerable upper intake level for choline. Very high supplemental doses (over several grams a day) can cause a fishy body odour, sweating, low blood pressure, and gastrointestinal upset.
The UK has no formal upper guidance for choline.
Supplements and UK guidance
Routine choline supplementation is not needed for adults eating eggs, animal protein, or a varied plant-based diet including soya, pulses, and wholegrains.
Choline is included in some pregnancy multivitamins; that is a reasonable backstop given the higher demand in pregnancy, though direct evidence on outcomes is still developing. Vegans and people who never eat eggs may want to consider a multivitamin that includes choline, or a deliberate focus on soya-based foods.
Choline supplements are marketed for cognitive enhancement and athletic performance; evidence for these claims is weak.
Related
- The folate and B12 methylation pair: Folate and Vitamin B12 share methylation pathways with choline.
- Plant-based diets and choline: Plant-based eating.
- Best food sources: Eggs, Chicken liver, Beef, Salmon, Soybeans.
Sources and references
- SACN. Dietary Reference Values for Food Energy and Nutrients for the United Kingdom. Department of Health Report 41 (1991). Does not set a value for choline.
- EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. Dietary Reference Values for choline. EFSA Journal 2016. Source of the 400mg adult Adequate Intake.
- Public Health England. McCance and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods, 7th summary edition (2015).
- USDA Agricultural Research Service. FoodData Central, SR Legacy release. fdc.nal.usda.gov.
This page is reference information for UK shoppers. It is not medical advice. UK reference values for choline have not been set; this entry uses the EFSA Adequate Intake for orientation only and labels it as such.